PENJANA MINDA

Constructivism

Educational pedagogy can often be broken into two general camps: objectivism and constructivism (although there is often differences in defining each of these). Objectivists believe that knowledge is outside of the learnertruths exist and learners must memorize them. The objectivist model is best seen in behaviorist methodology such as in direct instruction, where the goal is usually to have the student acquire and repeat factual information. Most textbooks are designed for, and most teachers are trained in, this type of model. Students either read or are told factual information, and then they are to repeat this information as a part of assessment to see if they "learned" it. This type of model is fine when the objectives to be met are for that type of informational memorization.

When the goals are for students to use higher-order (critical) thinking skills, to understand the causes or effects of ideas or actions, and to become fully engaged in their learning, then another model is needed. This is the constructivist model. The constructivist model, as defined by Dr. John A. Zahorik (1995, pp. 11-12), asserts that

Knowledge is constructed by humans. Knowledge is not a set

of facts, concepts, or laws waiting to be discovered. It is

not something that exists independent of a knower. Humans

create or construct knowledge as they attempt to bring meaning

to their experience. Everything that we know, we have made.

Knowledge is conjectural and fallible. Since knowledge is a

construction of humans and humans are constantly undergoing

new experiences, knowledge can never be stable. The under-

standings that we invent are always tentative and incomplete.

Knowledge grows through exposure. Understanding becomes

deeper and stronger if one tests it against new encounters.

Constructivists rely on cognitive psychology for much of their theoretical underpinnings. Piaget's research has been a big influence on constructivism. One of the ideas put forth is that humans have knowledge structures. These structures are like packets of information about different things that have meaning to each individual. Some individuals have different meanings attached to the same experiences as others. All new experiences are seen as they relate to existing knowledge structures. There are two ways to gain knowledge structures: assimilation or accommodation. Assimilation is where new knowledge structures are created by building on, or going through previously made knowledge structures. Accommodation is when old knowledge structures are reshaped to accommodate new experiences.
Zahorik (1995, pp. 14-22) lists five elements that need to be taken into account in constructivist teaching practice:

1 Activating knowledge. Prior knowledge structures need to be taken into account when beginning to learn new material. A teacher needs to know theses prior structures because they are the touchstone upon which the new information will be tested. These existing knowledge structures need to be roused or built before the new information is given.

2 Acquiring knowledge. The acquisition of knowledge needs to be done in wholes, not discreet packets. Instead of learning about each physical process and step in throwing a ball, the student would practice throwing first. After the learner had an understanding of the whole, "throwing," then the teacher could teach individual pieces that need attention (angle of the arm, timing the release, etc.)

3 Understanding knowledge. Students need to thoroughly explore and examine all the possible nuances of the new knowledge. They need to share their emerging structures with others who can then critique and thereby help the learner refine the structures.

4 Using knowledge. Students need the opportunity to extend and refine their knowledge structures by using them (preferably in an authentic problem-solving manner).

5 Reflecting on knowledge. "If knowledge is to be fully understood and widely applicable both in and out of school, they need to decontextualize it. This requires reflection." (1995, p. 21)

More later.

Sources:

Zahorik, John A. (1995). Constructivist Teaching (Fastback 390). Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

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